Extracts from Imre Szabo's Work The State Policy of Modern Europe, from the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century to the Present Time. In Two Volumes, London, 1857

Author(s) Karl Marx
Written June 1860


First published in: Marx and Engels, Works, Second Russian Edition, Vol. 44, Moscow, 1977
Printed according to the manuscript in English and German
Published in English for the first time in Marx-Engels Collected Works, Volume 17

This is Marx's synopsis of Imre Szabö's two-volume study, The State Policy of Modern Europe, from the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century to the Present Time, which was published anonymously in London in May-June 1857. Szabö's work, written in English, is a summary of inter-state relations in Europe from the Italian wars of the early 16th century to the Paris Congress of 1856. It reflects the influence of David Urquhart's views. Marx compiled his synopsis in the first half of June 1860 in connection with his work on Herr Vogt. He needed this historical investigation to expose the counter-revolutionary nature of Napoleon Ill's policy. In taking notes he concentrated on the events and fully ignored Szabö's interpretation of them. Some notes refer to events not mentioned in Szabö's work and are probably based on other sources. In the present edition these insertions and Marx's conclusions are set in large type. The names of persons and geographical names are reproduced in Marx's transcription, with their present spelling given in footnotes. Obvious mistakes have been silently corrected.

Marx drew on these notes above all in the chapter "Dâ-Dâ Vogt and His Studies" (see this volume, pp. 133-83).

[Volume I]

1) 1520-1559. Francis I and Charles V

(1523. Dissolution of the Union of Calmar[1] ; Gustavus Vasa elected king of Sweden.)

1520. Charles (V) crowned emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle[2] (master of Burgundy, Spain, Sicily, Naples and Navarre and Austria (since Maximilian I's death in 1519)). Milan, claimed by Louis XII by the right of his grandmother, of the family of Visconti, conquered by Francis I in 1515 from the Sforzas; now claimed by Charles as a fief of the Empire. Francis also revived the claims of France to Naples and Burgundy. Thus commenced a 14 years' war, apparently for the sake of Milan. Henry VIII in the Austrian alliance. French (after defeat of Bicocob[3] ) forced by a Spanish army to abandon the Duchy of Milan. Rome, Venice, Florence and Genoa enter the Austrian alliance. Francis I without an ally; Charles Bourbon (the Constable) goes over to Charles.

Second French campaign (in Italy) under General Bonnivet. The French routed. Charles Bourbon enters the Provence, English prepare to invade Picardy. Francis drives the invaders out of the French territory, reconquers the Duchy of Milan (after the battle of Marignano).

1525. Francis beaten before Pavia, carried away prisoner to Madrid. Coalition against Charles—the small states of Italy, new pope (Clement VII), Henry VIII, Louise of Savoy (the regent of France, Francis' mother). 1526. Francis accepts Madrid peace to get free.

League between Francis, Pope, Venice, Milan, Florence, Henry VIII.[4]

Bourbon with the Imperialists drives Sforza[5] from Milan, sacks Rome. Francis and Henry VIII declare war to Charles.

French army makes itself master of Rome, besieges Naples. Malady in the French camp, return to France.

Charles checked by the Lutheran princes of Germany and the arms of Soliman. Ottomans occupy almost the whole of Hungary, of which Ferdinand, the brother of Charles, endeavoured to possess himself. Soliman advances to the walls of Vienna.

1529. Treaty of Cambray (traité des dames).[6] Francis again renounces his claims to Milan, Naples, and Flanders. As to Burgundy, one chief point of the quarrel, only temporary arrangement: the marriage of Francis with Eleonora of Portugal, Charles' sister, being again stipulated.

Charles turns upon the Lutherans. The princes now [have] two lines of policy, with regard to home and foreign affairs; Pope even seeks the alliance of the infidels.

1530. Diet of Augsburg.[7] Condemnatory decree against innovation. Protestants form the league of Schmalkalden,[8] seek the aid of France and England. Francis enters upon the proposal; concludes also alliance with John Zapolya,[9] of Hungary, the rival of Ferdinand of Austria, and sends Rincon to Constantinople, to secure the Sultan's assistance. Francis marries his son[10] to Catherine of Medici, the pontiff's niece, while Henry VIII severs England from the see of Rome.[11]

1532. Temporary peace of Nuremberg (between Charles and the Protestants). Charles' expedition against Barbarossa.[12]

1535. Francis, after 6 years of peace, recommences war (third war), reappears in Italy; successful; dictates at Milan and Savoy. Charles returns victor from Algiers, drives the French from Italy, penetrates into the Provence where [he is] finally repulsed.

1538. Peace at Nice for 10 years. But 2 French envoys (Rincon to the Porte, Fregosa for Venice) by orders of Charles seized in Italy, assassinated. Francis recommences war. Five armies put in motion, but in vain.

1544. Peace of Crespy: Francis renounces his claims to Naples and Artois; bind[s] himself not to meddle with Navarre. (Henry VIII had again turned on the part of Charles.)

1547. t Francis I; his son Henry II. Charles turns upon the league of Schmalkalden.

1547. Victory of the Imperialists through Maurice of Saxony of Mühlberg, dissolving the league. Charles proclaims the Interim.[13] Maurice, having secured the co-operation of Henry II, surprises the Emperor in Tyrol (Charles forced 1552 to conclude the peace of Passau with the Protestants) same year in which the French poured into the Duchy of Lorraine, there to seize Metz, Toul and Verdun. Charles driven back from Metz and 1556 withdraws from the public scene, divides his dominions between his brother, Ferdinand of Austria, and his son Philip II. War in Italy and the Netherlands continues between Henry II and Philip II.

1559. Treaty of Château Cambresis.[14] Each party was bound to restore all the conquests made since 1551[15] ; France abandoning more than 180 strong places besides Savoy. Marriage of Elizabeth, daughter of Henry II, to Philip II. Henry II

This (the reign of Charles V) the period of Habsburg supremacy proper. France is the first to attack it, but supported by Lutherans in Germany, Soliman, Hungary (Zapolya) and the Pope (Clément), also by the jealousy of the small Italian states.

II) 1559-1618. The Netherlands and Philip II

1559. Francis II in France. (Religious wars in France.) 1566. Commencement of the troubles in the Netherlands.

1572. William of Orange proclaimed governor of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht. 1579. Union of Utrecht.

Elizabeth in England. 1562 (after treaty of Elizabeth with Protestants in France) treaty with Charles IX (of France). In this treaty comprehended Ferdinand (Emperor) and Philip II.

1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew.

Till 1585 the Netherlands left to themselves. 1585. Alliance treaty of Elizabeth with the Netherlands.

1589. Henry III, the last of the Valois, murdered. Henry of Navarre (Henry IV).

1593. Alliance at the Hague between Elizabeth and Henry IV; Netherlands included in it.

1598. Peace of Vervins between Henry IV and Philip II (mutual restitution of the conquests since 1559). This peace proclaimed the Wane of Spanish preponderance (in the same year Edict of Nantes). Philip II t. Philip III. (1588. Destruction of the Armada.) Death of Elizabeth. James I.

1609. Treaty between Henry and Spain for the cessation of hostilities with the United Provinces (form of a truce of 12 years; in fact, an acknowledgment of the independence of the Low Countries). (The Spanish branch of the Habsburgs still maintained its sway over Italy and had acquired Portugal in 1581).

Henry IV's plan for the remodelling of Europe (abasement of Austria).[16] Provisions: Italy: Pope secular Prince (Rome, Naples, Apulia, Calabria under him); Venice (Republic; united with Florence, Modena, a few other small states); Duke of Savoy (to become king of Lombardy).

Bohemia (elective kingdom; to be annexed to it Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia[17] ). Hungary (annexed to it the arch-duchy of Austria, Styria, Carinthia). Poland also to be aggrandized. Switzerland (to be added to it Tyrol, Alsace, and other territories). Netherlands (to be republic).

The House of Austria to be reduced to Spain and a few islands off the coast of the Mediterranean.

Henry IV 1610.

(This period [witnesses the] downfall of the older branch of the Habsburgs.)

Ill) 1618-1648. (Thirty Years War)

1617. Treaty between Gustav Adolphus and Michael Feodorowich (first Romanoff). Sweden confirmed in the possession of Carelia, Kexholm[18] and Ingria.[19] Muscovite excluded from the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic. Adolphus rendered himself master (against Poland) of Livonia and Polish Prussia. End of the 16th century extinction of the Jagellon dynasty.

Hungary and Bohemia now under the Habsburgs: the former aided, and, at the same time, clogged by Turkey in its attempts to throw off the Habsburgs.

Under Ferdinand I, Maximilian, Rudolph II (filling the XVIt h century) Austria takes no part in the wars between Spain and France; appeases the Sultans with tributes and vies for Hungary.

1606. Hungary pacified by the treaty of Vienna (Rudolph II). Transylvania's independence acknowledged.[20] Turkey checked by Abbas, Shah of Persia; arrested her progress to Europe.

Accession of Ferdinand II (archduke of Styria).

1618 commencement of the troubles in Bohemia. Bohemians offer the crown to Frederick V (elector of the Palatinate); his ally Bethlen[21] (prince of Transylvania).

28 Aug. 1619. Ferdinand II elected emperor of Germany, concludes alliance with Maximilian of Bavaria, Spain, Pope,[22] and Marv de Medicis (in the minority of Louis XIII, married to Anne, daughter of Philip III). (Duke of Angouleme 1620 concludes for France treaty with Ferdinand II at Ulm.) Philip III t. Philip IV. Protestants in Germany [find an] ally in Christian IV of Denmark; Wallenstein's army. Beginning of the war.[23] Prince of Wales married with Henrietta of France.[24]

1624. Richelieu's entrance into office.

1625. Richelieu makes war on Spain by occupying the Valtelina. Charles I (in England).

1626. Bethlen forced to make peace with Ferdinand II.[25] Denmark (participating in the war from 1625) forced to make a separate peace with Ferdinand II (1629).

1629. Ferdinand II's decree of Restitution.[26] La Rochelle surrenders to Richelieu.

1629. Richelieu mediates peace between Sweden and Poland.[27] Gustavus Adolphus (with the promise of subsidies of France) lands an army in Pomerania.

1631. Treaty between France and Sweden.

(1629, after the death of Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua,[28] Charles, Duke of Nevers, and Ferdinand of Guastalla pretenders to it. Former supported by France, latter by Austria. French army forces the pass of Susa, confirms Nevers.)[29]

1632. Battle of Lützen. Gustav Adolphus

1634. Defeat of the Swedes at Nördlingen. Direct participation of France in the war of Germany. France takes possession of Alsace, after its fortified places were given up to the French by their Swedish allies. New league with the Netherlands set on foot by Richelieu. Elector of Saxe[30] goes over to the Emperor; peace of Prague.[31]

War simultaneously recommenced in Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, on the Rhine and the Danube. Richelieu invades Spain. (1635) Marshals Châtillon and Brézé entered the Netherlands; Créqui, in unison with the Duke of Savoy,[32] in Italy; Guébriant and Turenne cooperate with the Swedes on the Rhine, another body penetrates into Spain.

Austria and Spain on the one side; France, Sweden, and the Netherlands on the other the principals.

1637. Ferdinand II Ferdinand III Emperor.

1640. Fresh war in Hungary about to commence by George Rakoczy[33] Prince of Transylvania, in alliance with France and Sweden; the latter (France) ditto with the Catalonians, where a rise [takes place]. Revolution in Portugal; expulsion of the Spaniards. Emperor assured by a truce with the Turks, then masters of the half of Hungary. Victories of the French army in Italy, Spain, Flanders, on the Rhine.

4 December 1642. Richelieu t. 1643. Louis XIII. Mazarin (Anne's of Spain Regency).[34]

1645. Assembling of the Plenipotentiaries at Munster (chiefly there treated the affairs of Sweden and the Protestants), and Osnabrück[35] (the affairs of France principally).[36] (155 negotiators.) (Savoy ally of France.)

Circular of the French ambassador: "the interests of France identical with German liberty". Victories by French and Swedes.

"The Hollanders no more feared their hereditary enemies, the Spaniards, but the French, their ancient allies, now the object of their distrust" (Bougeantb).[37] "They (the Hollanders) insensibly came to the conviction that security consisted in having the Spaniards as a barrier against France" (I.e.). Preliminary agreement between the Spanish and Dutch ambassadors.

1648. Victories of the Swedes. Ratification of peace between Spain and Holland.[38]

October 1648. Peace. (Spain excluded from it.)

France obtained: Upper and Lower Alsace, Brisac,[39] right of keeping a garrison in

Philipsburg, the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun. Sweden received Higher Pomerania, Stettin, Gortz, etc., port of Wismar; bishoprics of Verden and Bremen, with vote in the German diet. Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Hanover, Hesse, etc., compensated chiefly by ecclesiastical property. (Pignerol,[40] formerly belonging to Savoy, [turned over] to France.) In Italy Austria confirmed in Milan and Tuscany. Acknowledged independence of Holland and Switzerland

(de facto since 1315).

With reference to religion all settled on the basis of the peace of Passau and Augsburg (1552 and 1556). Emperor grants general amnesty to the empire, except his own provinces.

(Bohemia forgotten.)[41]

Weakening of the younger house of Austria.

IV) 1648-1660. Gallo-Spanish War.

Peace of the Pyrenees

Cromwell.

1654. War in Flanders between Mazarin and Spain.

1654. Peace between England and Holland.[42]

1655. Coalition between England and France. Commercial English treaty with France. 1657 Cromwell sends the French an aid of 6,000 men, acquires Dunkirk.

1657. Ferdinand III. 1658 Leopold Emperor. Cromwell

1657. Coalition against Sweden of Denmark, Poland, Muscovy, Austria. (Charles Gustavus king of Sweden.) His only ally: Prince Rakoczy of Transylvania.

1659. Conferences between Mazarin and Don Louis de Haro, on the island of Pheasants (in the river of Bidasoa). Marriage between Louis XIV and Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV (entire renunciation on the part of the Infanta). Treaty of the Pyrenees[43] France gets in the Low Countries the county of Arras, several places in Flanders, Hainault and the Duchy of Luxemburg. On the Pyrenees Roussillon and Conflans.3 Duke of Lorraine bound to allow a military passage to France.

March 1661 MazaVin.

1654. Queen Christina resigns in favour of Charles X (son of the sister of Gustav Adolphus[44] ). He is allied with the elector of Brandenburg,[45] invades Poland. Then league of Denmark with Muscovy, Holland against him. 1660 he compels the Danes to peace, gets Scania,d Oeland,e several places on the island of Rügen, exemption from the Sound Duties.[46] 1660 Charles X t; his son, Charles XI, succeeds. Renews treaty with Denmark, makes peace of Oliva[47] with Poland, which cedes to him Livonia, Esthonia, and Oesel. 1661 peace with Muscovy on the status quo ante bellum.

"Thus did Sweden confirm its preponderance in the north, at the very moment when France became all-powerful in the south and west of Europe."

V) 1660-1697. Wars of Louis XIV. Peace of Ryswick

Restoration in England.

Dunkirk sold to Louis XIV by Charles II. War between England and Holland. England by De Ruyter and Tromp forced to peace of Breda (1667). (Louis XIV acted in this war with Holland.) Louis XIV assists Portugal against Spain.

1665. Philip IV of Spain (Louis XIV's father-in-law) t. Carlos II (scarcely 4 years old, his son). (Philip IV's 2 n d daughter[48] consort of the Emperor Leopold.) Louis XIV lays claim by the "right of devolution"[49] to the Spanish Netherlands.

1667. Louis XIV (Turenne) conquers greatest part of the Spanish Netherlands. 1668 (winter) subdues Franche-Comté.

January 23, 1668. Triple Alliance between England, Holland and Sweden. France was to relinquish its conquests in the Spanish Netherlands or Franche-Comté.

May 1668. Louis XIV at Aix-la-Chapelle peace with Spain (retains his conquests in the Netherlands, relinquishes Franche-Comté).

1670. Conspiracy of the nobles in Hungary against the Habsburg rule. Leopold treaty with Louis XIV. Hungary subdued, Leopold turned to the Dutch.

1671. Secret treaty of Louis XIV with Charles II of England.

1672. French invasion of Holland.

1673. Charles forced to abandon the French alliance. Coalition of Spain, the Emperor,[50] Brandenburg, Holland, Denmark against France. Sweden her only ally. Theatre of war from Holland transferred to the Spanish Netherlands and the German frontiers.

1675. Negotiations commence at Nimeguen,[51] where:

10 August 1678. Separate treaty between Louis XIV and Holland. September 1678 Spain made peace. Abandons Franche-Comté for the restitution of some places in the Spanish Netherlands. Finally Leopold makes peace[52] ; Louis stipulates with Denmark, Brunswick, Brandenburg for the restitution to Sweden of the conquests made upon her during the war. Louis XIV triumphs at the coast of Sicily over the united fleets of Holland and Spain. But the peace of Nimeguen did not settle Louis' right over a few towns in Alsace.

1681. Chamber of Reunion in Metz.[53]

Emperor tries to make war; but war with Hungary and Turkey; 1684 makes peace with Louis XIV at Ratisbonne.[54]

1686. League between Holland, Austria, Savoy, Brandenburg.

1688. Louis XIV sends an army to the Rhine. Accession of William III in England. Great offensive alliance against France (England, Holland, Emperor Leopold, Spain, Brandenburg, Victor Amadeus of Savoy).

1689. Declaration of war against France by Holland, England, Spain, and Austria.[55] (Separate treaty between Holland, England and the Emperor in May 1689.) (Emperor or his heirs shall be assisted in taking the eventual succession of the Spanish Monarchy. His son, Joseph, king of Hungary, shall be elected Emp. of Germany.) (France to be reduced to the terms of the treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees.)

August 1696. Separate peace at Turin between Louis XIV and Victor Amadeus of Savoy. Pignerol given up to Savoy.

1697. Peace of Ryswick.[56] First peace between France, Holland and England. Then Spain. Mutual restitution. July 1697 peace with the Emperor. Kiel, Fribourg, Brisac, Philipsburg exchanged by Louis XIV for Strasburg. Apart from this, restitution of all places acquired during the war, beyond Alsace.

VI) 1697-1715. War of the Spanish Succession.

Peace of Utrecht

October 11, 1698. Partition treaty (of Spain) at the Hague between Louis XIV and William III. (Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Guipuscoa allotted to the Dauphin.[57] Milan to archduke Charles, 2nd son of the emperor. Spain and its other possessions to the Elector of Bavaria[58] and his heirs.)

February 1698. the Elector of Bavaria.

March 11, 1700. Second Partition Scheme between William and Louis.

(Dauphin to receive, besides the dominions in the 1st treaty, Lorraine, for which Milan to the Duke of Lorraine. All the other dominions of the Spanish crown to the Archduke Charles.)

1699. Peace of Carlowitz between the Porte, Austria, Venice, and Poland.

1700. League between Czar Peter, Poland and Denmark against Sweden, defeat of the Russians at Narva by Charles XII.

October 1700. Will of Carlos II, appointing the Duke of Anjou,[59] 2nd son of the Dauphin, his heir. November 1700 Carlos II t. Philip V acknowledged by Duke of Savoy, Duke of Mantua,[60] Portugal, and lastly, King William.

February 1701. Louis XIV marches troops into the Spanish Netherlands which he forces the Dutch garrisons to evacuate; letter patent by which he acknowledges the right of Philip to succeed to the throne of France.[61]

September 1701. Second Great Alliance.[62] James II t. Louis XIV acknowledges the Pretender.[63] William t. Partial war between Austria and France in Italy.[64]

1702. Queen Anne renews the alliance. May. War against France declared by England, Holland, Emperor.[65] (Portugal, Hanover, Prussia accede) ([also] several of the smaller German states). (Bavaria, Brunswick, Cologne, Duke of Savoy for Louis XIV.)

1704. Gibraltar captured by the English. 1706 victory of Ramillies (Marlborough). Civil war in Hungary.[66] Austria conquers Naples.

1707. Charles XII in Saxony.

(Hungary in war against Austria since 1703.)

1709. Battle of Pultava.[67] Charles XII to Turkey.

1710. Declarations of war by the Porte to Russia.

1711. Peace of the Pruth between Turkey and Russia. Preliminaries of Peace between England and France.

April 1711. Emperor Joseph. The Archduke Charles, his son,[68] heir to all his dominions.

In the preliminaries (between England and France):

Dunkirk demolished; Gibraltar and Port Mahon, Newfoundland and Hudson Bay for England.

January 12, 1712. General Congress opened at Utrecht. (Philip renounces his claims to France.) (Duke of Berry and Duke of Orleans renounce their claims to Spain.)

April 1713. Peace of Utrecht concluded between England, France, Spain and Holland. France ceded to England, besides the above, her possessions in the island of St. Christopher, Nova Scotia, Port Royal. In the name of Spain Louis ceded Upper Guelder to Prussia, acknowledged the king-title of Frederick I, and his sovereignty over Neufchatel. Savoy received Sicily and the right of succession [to the] throne, in default of the issue of Philip V. Frontier between France and Savoy the summits of the Alps. Holland obtains a commercial treaty and the exchange of a few places. April 11, 1713. Commercial treaty between France and England.

1711. Hungary pacified by the treaty of Szatmar. Czar Peter promised to assist him[69] with 30,000 men, if allowed to keep Livonia as a fief of the German empire. Short campaign, France on the Rhine superior to Austria.

Sept. 7, 1714. Peace of Baden between France and Austria. France acknowledges the right of the Emperor to Naples, Milan, Tuscany, Spanish Netherlands; restores Brisac and Fribourg. Electors of Bavaria and Cologne to be restored to their states.

1715. New league against Sweden joined by George I and Prussia.

Philip V not yet acknowledged by Austria. Not until 1715 treaty between Holland and Austria, which concedes Holland a few places in the Spanish Netherlands, in addition to the right of garrisoning several other places.

1 September 1715. Louis XIV.

VII) 1715-1721

George I [and] Duke of Orleans united in league against Spain. (Alberoni.)

1699. Peace of Carlowitz. Peter gets Azov; abandonment of all Hungary to Austria save the Banat; Morea rendered back to Venice; Podolia and Ukraine to Poland.

Under the treaty between England (Hanover), Prussia, Poland (Saxony) and Denmark, the Czar received the Baltic provinces; Prussia Stettin and dependencies, August of Saxony rex Poloniae Courland, Hanover Bremen-Verden, Denmark the island of Rügen with a part of Swedish Pomerania.[70] 1719. Aaland conferences opened on April 24.[71] Agreed in Aaland isles that: Czar assists Charles XII to recover from Prussia Stettin and the part of Pomerania occupied by Prussian troops. Czar assists Sweden with 20,000 men for carrying on the war in Germany, and assists Charles to acquire Norway as indemnity for the Baltic provinces ceded to Russia. Czar assists Charles to gain back Bremen and Verden from George I, etc.

(also Restoration of Stuarts).

Death of Charles XII. Peace of the new Swedish Government with England, Denmark and Prussia.

(Treaty of Stockholm, November 1, 1719.)

Treaty of Nystadt (in Finland), August 30, 1721. (Sweden cedes Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, part of Carelia, district of Wiborg, islands Oesel, Dago, Moen, and the other islands off the coasts of the said provinces. Czar restores Finland except a part, to be determined at the regulation of the frontiers.)[72]

(Under the peace of Stockholm Schleswig fell to Denmark. Peter marries his daughter Anne to Duke of Holstein,[73] takes up his "rights". Originally, he in alliance with Denmark against this Duke.)

"Transformation of the north of Europe, based on the dismemberment of Sweden.

" VIII) 1715-1740. General Embroilment of Europe

War between Spain and Austria in Italy. Austria supported by England. War of England and France against Spain.

Alberoni sent into exile.

January 1720. Spain accedes to the Quadruple Alliance.[74] Sicily made over to the Emperor,[75] Savoy receives Sardinia in exchange for it. Parma, Placentia,[76] Tuscany promised, on the death of the last Medici,[77] to Don Carlos, son of Philip V by his second wife, Elizabeth of Parma.

1724. Congress of Cambray (England, France, Spain, and Austria).

1725. Secret treaties between Spain and Austria. Counter-treaty of Hanover.[78]

1728. (Opened 14 June) Congress of Soissons.

1729. Peace of Seville between Spain, England and France.

1731. Treaty of Vienna between Austria, England and Holland. Death of king Augustus.

September 1733. Stanislaus Leszinsky proclaimed king of Poland. Russia (ruled by Anne since 1730) with Austria (Karl VI) are for the son[79] of the deceased king, who promised the emperor the guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction,[80] and to the Czarina not to reclaim Courland, formerly a fief of Poland. War about the crown of Poland. France attacks Austria.

Marshal Berwick operates on the Rhine. Another French army, under Villars, crosses the Alps, and, joined by Charles Emanuel of Sardinia, drove the Austrians from Milan. Shortly afterwards Don Carlos (of Spain) (son of Elizabeth) penetrated into Naples and Sicily-, where he was proclaimed king, dispersing (with the aid of the population, exasperated at the tyranny of the Austrian rule) the whole imperial army; and there was soon nothing left in Italy in Austrian hands, save the fortress of Mantua. Only 1,500 French troops sent to Danzic.

1735. Peace of Vienna (October) between France and Austria. (August III of Saxony shall be king of Poland. Stanislaus, with the kingly title, receives the Duchies of Lorraine and Bar, to revert after his death to France. Don Carlos retains Naples, Sicily, and the Austrian coast of Tuscany.) The Duke of Lorraine receives in exchange for his hereditary dominions the possession of Tuscany. Sardinia shall receive Novara, Tortona, and a few other places in the Milanese. Parma and Piacenza to be given to the Emperor. All the other conquests made by the allied armies to be restored. Guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction by France, Spain, the maritime powers and Russia. (Marie Thérèse, the Emperor's daughter, marries Francis of Lorraine.[81] )

1736. Russo-Austrian war against the Porte. Russians invade the Crimea. Munich takes Perekop, lays waste the southern part of the peninsula.

1737. Munich takes Oczakow. Gen. Lascy (Russ) again penetrates into the

Crimea. Congress of Niemirov. Russia demanded: 1) the abolition of all former treaties; 2) cession of the Crimea, the Kuban, and the other Tartar provinces; 3) independence of the Danubian provinces, under the protectorate of Russia; 4) Czar to be acknowledged (his title as Emperor); 5) free navigation in the Euxine,[82] the Bosphorus, the Hellespont, and the Mediterranean.

Austria asked large territories beyond the Danube, including Belgrade, Widdin, several portions of Moldavia and Wallachia.

1739. Peace of Belgrade: Everything restituted to the Porte except Azov. Further: The Porte remained in the possession of Belgrade, Orsova, and the disputed parts of Wallachia and Bosnia. (Never had Hungary had a better opportunity for recovering her independence. Rakoczy, ex-prince of Transylvania, in Turkey together with anti-Austrian Hungarian chiefs.)

War in India[83] between Spain and England. English declaration of war against Spain.[84]

1740. Frederick William I, of Prussia; Emperor Charles VI; Anna of Russia.

1713-1740. Barren unison of France with England. Pitiable state of Sweden, divided into Hat (French) and Bonnet (Russian) parties, the latter of which soon gained the ascendancy.

IX) 1740-1763. Austrian Succession War.

Seven Years War

1740. Invasion of Silesia by Frederick II.

1741. Treaty of Nymphenburg, based on the partition of Austria (between France, Elector of Bavaria,[85] Spain, August III (of Saxony and Poland), and Prussia). Habsburg saved by Hungarian enthusiasm, and the treacherous policy and half measure of Cardinal Fleury. 1741 (spring). Fred. II marches into Moravia. Sardinia, subsequently gained over to the other side, prepares for the invasion of Milan.

1742. England declares for Austria. June 11 peace at Breslau between Frederick and Austria (he gets Lower Silesia). War between France and Austria goes on in Germany and Italy. Frankfort (1742) Charles VII (Bavaria) crowned Emperor.

To prevent Russia from rendering aid to Maria Theresia, French bring about a Russo-Swedish war; soon ended to Russia's profit. 1743 peace of Abo; Sweden to cede different places in Finland; to designate, at the behest of the Czarina,[86] the Duke of Holstein Gottorp,c successor to the Swedish crown.

1745. Treaty of Warsaw between England, Saxony and Austria against Frederick.

(1743. Treaty of Worms between Austria, England and Sardinia.) Frederick again enters the French alliance.

(1744. Spring. France and England declare war against each other.)[87]

1745 (December). Peace of Dresden between Frederick and Austria: renewal of the treaty of Breslau, by which Frederick retained Silesia, promising his vote to Francis of Lorraine, consort of Maria Theresia. Emperor Charles Albert of Bavaria had died, his son[88] had made peace with Maria Theresia. (This the second separate Austro-Prussian peace.)

This peace enabled Maria Theresia to send large reinforcements to Italy where Milan, Parma and Piacenza had fallen into the hands of the Gallo-Spanish armies; scale turned.

England victorious in the Indies and the Mediterranean. Philip V of Spain t. Withdrawal of the Spanish troops from Italy. While Belleisle beaten in Italy, victories of Marshal de Saxe[89] and Lowendal in the Netherlands. Saxe in 1747 progresses through the territories of the Dutch Republic, reduction of the fortress Bergen-op Zoom. Maritime victories by the Engl, admirals Anson, Warren and Hawke. Russian army of 40,000 set in motion by Elizabeth, allured by the promise of English subsidies.

1748. October. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle which Maria Theresia could not but accept. Restitution of conquests by France and England. France gave up for Cape Breton the places in the Netherlands, and restored to England Madras; dispute about the frontiers in Canada left for subsequent decision. Parma, Piacenza, Gustalla[90] given to Don Philip and his male heirs. Sardinia remains in status quo, Assiento treaty for England prolonged for 4 years, guarantee of the English succession, expulsion of the Stuarts from France. Guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, confirmation of Lower Silesia to Frederick II. Germs of the new war the pending differences between France and England.

1751-3. Kaunitz' secret negotiations at Paris. Makes first abbé de Bernis, then Duc de Choiseul Minister.

1754. War recommences between France and England in America; dispute about the boundaries of Nova Scotia, or Acadia, ceded to England in the Utrecht treaty[91] ; building of French forts along the Ohio, occupation by the French of the neutral islands of the Antilles, Tobago, St. Vincent, St. Lucia.

January 1756. Anglo-Prussian treaty of Westminster. Against it Gallo-Austrian defensive alliance of Versailles (May 1756). At the same time negotiations between Austria, Saxony, and (Elizabeth) Russia. June 1756. Capture of Fort Mahon by the French. Frederick defeats the Saxons at Pirna (surrender of 18,000 men) (autumn 1756).

1757 (winter). Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and several "circles" of Germany collect force of 400,000 men against Frederick. Spring 1757 Fred, beats the Austrians at Prague; beaten by Daun at Collin,[92] forced to retreat to Saxony. Defeat of the Hanovero-Hessian troops by Richelieu.[93] (Convention at Closter Seven, by which Duke of Cumberland bound to disband the Han. Hess, troops.) Frederick persuades Richelieu to inaction, while he falls upon Soubise and the Germans under Prince Hildburghausen. November 5 his victory at Rosbach, while Richelieu remained inactive in his quarters at Halberstadt. Then to Silesia. Victory at Lissa.[94]

1758. Accession of Pitt (Lord Chatham) to the head of affairs.

December 1758. Second Gallo-Austrian treaty at Versailles. Louis XV engages to subsidise the Swedes, to maintain 100,000 army (French) in Germany, and to maintain also the Saxon army — Silesia and Glatz to be restituted to the empress,[95] the Rhenish provinces to be conquered from Prussia, to be ceded to Austria, the revenues, however, during the time of war, to be given to France. France forgot her maritime war,[96] to fight the battles of Austria.

1759. Defeat of Prussians at Hochkirchen.

1759-60. English victorious in the East Indies, in America (capture of Quebec by Wolfe, hence, the conquest of Canada) and in the West Indies.

Choiseul in Austria's interest.

1761. Family compact between the French and Spanish Bourbons. Chatham will anticipate Spain. Supplanted by Lord Bute. Invasion of Portugal by Spain.

January 1762. t Elizabeth of Russia. Peter III emperor. The propositions made to the Czar by Lord Bute, through the Russian minister, Prince Golitsin, to reduce Prussia to peace on any conditions, declined.

(Fred. II informed of these despatches by Peter III.)

Bute's secret negotiations with Austria for the dismemberment of Prussia met with no better success.

February 1763. Peace between England, France, Spain at Paris. England received Nova Scotia, Canada, Cape Breton, while France a share in the fisheries of Newfoundland. Mississippi declared the boundary between Louisiana and the British settlements. France yielded to England, in the West Indies, Grenada and the neutral islands of St. Vincent, Domingo,[97] Tobago. In Africa the English restored Gorea, retained Senegal; Menorca restored to England. France recovered her small possessions in the East Indies, but engaged to maintain no troops in Bengal. Spain gave up to England Florida, confirms her right to cut logwood in the bay of Honduras, but Spain replaced in Cuba and Havanah. Portugal in the status quo ante bellum.

Peace at Hubertusburg[98] between Fred, and Austria (nothing else than a confirmation of the peace at Breslau and Dresden[99] ). (Fred.engages to give his vote for Archduke Joseph, son of Maria Theresa, at the pending election of the king of the Roumans.) No territorial change in Europe after the 7 years' war.

If Frederick raised Prussia to the rank formerly occupied by Sweden (since the peace of Westphalia[100] ), he is prudent enough to profit by, but too weak to arrest, the progress of Muscovite ambition.... Fred. II had no great political plan. Silesia his whole and single idea.

The distinctive character of this period the decline of France. In the first war the alliances of France with Frederick, twice thrown overboard by him, failed to wrest the German sceptre from dilapidated Austria. In the second war, France, allied with that same Austria, Saxony, Sweden and Russia, failed even to dispossess Frederick of Silesia.

X) 1763-1774. Partition of Poland.

Peace of Kainardji

Augustus III, Saxon king of Poland, June 1762. Catherine usurps throne of Russia. Catherine and Frederick declare for Poniatowski. Defensive alliance between them, contains secret clause not to permit any changes in the anomalous constitution of Poland.[101]

1764. Russian troops march into Poland. September enthrone Poniatowski. Russian minister[102] at Warsaw real president of the assemblies of Poland. Catherine declares for the dissidents (Greeks and Protestants), also supported by England and Sweden, as the guarantees of the peace of Oliva.

Diet of 1767. Prince Repnin, the Russian ambassador, assumes the part of a dictator. Polish Confederacy of Bar (in Podolia). War with the Russians; the remnant of the Bar confederates driven into the dominions of the Porte, excited by France to mingle in the Russo-Polish war. At the end of 1768 or the beginning of 1769 the Sultan[103] throws the Russian Ambassador[104] in the 7 towers.

1770. Russo-Turkish war.[105]

(Corsica sold to France by Genoa.)[106]

1772. Partition of Poland. By the partition Prussia obtained West Prussia (600,000 souls; master of the Vistula, the inlets and outlets of Polish commerce); Catherine: Lithuania and the country between the rivers Dvina and Dnieper (1,800,000 souls); Austria: Lodomeria, Gallicia, and other parts surrounding Hungary (3,000,000 souls).

July 1774. (Peace of Kainardji.) (Independence of the Crimea.) Azov, Kinburn, Kertch, Yenikale for Russia, etc. The right of Russia to make verbal applications at Constantinople, in behalf of Moldavia and Wallachia.

Austria obtains the Bukovina part of Moldavia (Austria, the ally of Turkey).

XI) 1774-1783. American War of Independence.[107]

Peace of Paris

1763. Rigorous regulations (British) to prevent smuggling; stamp duty.[108]

1773. Boston demonstration (ship-cargoes with tea thrown into the sea). December 1776. (Franklin arrives in France.)

6 February 1778. Treaty between France and the revolted Colonies.[109]

April 1778. French fleet under Count d'Estaing with a considerable land force sets sail for America.

Joseph (of Austria) attempts to annex Lower Bavaria (after the death of the Elector Maximilian Joseph) to Austria.

Potato war.[110]

He tries also to open by force of arms the free navigation of the Scheldt.

1779. Spain joins with France in the war against England.

1780. Russia proclaims the Armed Neutrality.[111] [112]

3 September 1783. Peace of Versailles between France, Spain, America, England. May 1784. Peace between England and Holland.

XII) 1783-1790. Final annexation of the Crimea

to the Russian Empire

Austria in alliance with Russia, ready to share in the spoil.

1790. Prusso-Turkish Alliance.... Congress of Reichenbach (entire conciliation of Prussia and Austria[113] ).... Peace of Werila (on the basis of the status quo) between Sweden and Russia[114] .... Discontent of the Hungarians and Belgians.... Peace of Szistova between Austria and Turkey[115] .... Peace of Jassy (between Russia and Turkey).[116]

Austria, since the days of Charles V, was never able either to conquer, or to recover, a single province.

[Volume II][117]

la) 1790-1796

1791, August 25. Austro-Prussian declaration of Pilnitz.

1792 (April 20). French declaration of war against Austria.

1792 (July 25, Coblenz). Brunswick's proclamation.

1793, 21 January. Louis Capet executed.

1793, 25 March. Convention of Pitt with Russia, followed by treaties of alliance and subsidies with Sardinia, Spain, the Bourbon Princes of Italy, Prussia, Austria, Portugal, and several petty states of Germany

(against France).

1st Coalition. (While sending his troops into the heart of France, the Prussian king[118] plotted with Catherine a second partition of Poland.)

July 1793. Second partition of Poland. Prussia: Danzic and Thorn.

(The new constitution of Poland had been proclaimed May 3, 1791.) (Throne hereditary.) (Russian campaign in Poland 1792.) (Convention between Prussia and Russia of St. Petersburg,January 23, 1793. Prussians enter Poland. Russia got nearly the half of Lithuania (the Palatinates of Podolia, Polotsk and Minsk, the half of Novogrodek,[119] Brest, Volhynia) (3 millions of inhabitants).[120]

Catherine vehemently inveighed against France, keeping her forces at home. April 1794. (Subsidiary agreement between Prussia and England.)

March 24, 1794. Kosciuszko (dictator). Insurrection at Warsaw and Vilna. Austria despatches also an army. November 9, 1794. Suworow enters Warsaw.

3 January 1795. Separate Declaration of Petersburg between Austria and Russia (relating to the division). October 24, 1795. Prussia signs with Austria the convention of Petersburg. Cracow for Austria. Russia obtained the remainder of Poland and Lithuania as far as the Niémen, and the confines of Brest and Novogrodek, greater part of Samogitia, all of Courland and Semigalia. In little Poland that part of the territory of Chelm situated on the right bank of the Bug, and the remainder of Volhynia. (1,200,000.)

Austria [obtains], besides principal part of Cracow, Palatinates of Sandomir and Lublin, part of the district of Chelm, Palatinates of Brest, Podolactia[121] and Masovia (on the left bank of the Bug) (about 1 million of souls).

Prussia part of Masovia and Podolactia on the right bank of the Bug, in Lithuania part of the Palatinate of Troki and Samogitia and small district in little Poland, part of the Palatinate of Cracow (about 1 million).

III partition of Poland

Russia hitherto the greatest gainer by the French war. The first in impressing upon England, Austria, Prussia the dangers of the revolutionary principles, Catherine pursued her separate interests, without furnishing a single Cossack or a single rouble for the "common cause". Her few vessels sent to the assistance of England had the appearance of mockery.

5 April 1795. Basel Peace of France with Prussia. Definite and secret treaty in August. Prussia ceded her possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, to be indemnified by the secularisation of several German bishoprics. Spain follows. (France holds only Spanish part of St. Domingo.[122] ) Tuscany [made] peace with France earlier on. Two powers of the Baltic neutral. England now only with Sardinia and Austria. Belgium incorporated into France. Parts of Holland ceded to France.[123]

IIa) 1796-1801 (peace of Luneville)

April 1796. (3 consecutive battles—Bonaparte—decide the fate of Sardinia.) (France obtained Savoy, Nice and the right to occupy several fortresses.) Bonaparte in Lombardy. The colonies of the Batavian republic had fallen into the hands of Great Britain.

Catherine t 17 November 1796.

18 April 1797. Peace preliminaries at Leoben signed by Austria.

Cisalpine Republic (Modena, Ferrara, Romagna, Mantua). Ligurian republic (Genoa, etc.)

17 October 1797. Peace of Campoformio. (Austria renounces the Netherlands, consents to the acquisition of the left bank of the Rhine by France. Receives Venice and the Dalmatian part of the Venetian territory. Albania and the Venetian or Ionian islands become French.)[124]

(May 19, 1798. Bonaparte leaves Toulon for Egypt.) (Malta Bonaparte conquers in June 1798.)[125] March 15, 1798. Rastatt Congress.[126]

December 1798. Treaty between England and Russia. (Both [form] separate alliance with Turkey and Sicily.) Swiss Republic under French Protectorate. Occupation by the French of the Papal states.

Second Coalition.

April 1799. Dissolution of the Rastatt Congress.

Austria enters the 2nd coalition. By and by Portugal, Bavaria, Elector of Mayence,[127] Duke of Württemberg[128] enter it. War in Italy and Germany. Naples overthrown. Parthenopean Republic.[129] Piedmont [becomes] French under false pretences (de facto. Charles Emanuel IV withdraws to Sardinia.)

(9 October 1799. Bonaparte lands in France.)

June 14, 1799. Marengo. British take Malta. Emperor Paul: armed neutrality with Denmark, Sweden and Prussia.

March 23, 1801. Paul t. Alexander I.

9 February 1801. Peace of Luneville. (Rhine recognised by Austria as the boundary of France. Division of Venetian territory. Cession of Belgium to France.) (Cisalpine, Ligurian, Helvetian, Batavian republics recognised.)

Ilia) 1801-1805

January 1802. Bonaparte president of the Italian republic.

27 March 1802. Peace of Amiens (France, England, Spain, Holland). (England retains Trinidad and Ceylon.) (Malta to be evacuated by the English, independent.) (France promises to evacuate Naples, Papal states; England all the ports and islands in the Mediterranean and Adriatic. Republic of the Ionian islands, integrity of Turkey guaranteed.)

May 18, 1803. England declares war to France.

May 18, 1804. Bonaparte Emperor. 2 December 1804 crowned by Pope.[130]

IVa) 1805-1807. 3d Coalition. Peace of Tilsit

Petersburg the pivot of new combinations against France.

11 April 1805. Coalition Treaty between England and Russia. (Sweden already bound to England[131] by a treaty of December 1804, by which Stralsund was made the dépôt of the English.)

Declar. Petersburg of August 9, exchanged between Austria with England and Russia.

17 October 1805. Capitulation of Ulm. 2 December Austerlitz.

26 December 1805. Separate peace of Pressburg (Austria and Bonaparte). (Napoleon recognised as king of Italy. Austria loses her Venetian part. Cedes Tyrol to Bavaria; other parts to Baden and Württemberg. Bavaria and Württemberg kingdoms, Baden Grand Duchy.)

January 23, 1806. Pitt t. Fox negotiates with France. Russia thwarts the peace negotiations. September 13, 1806. Fox.

July 12, 1806 (Paris. Confederation of the Rhine, 16 German princes.)

6 August 1806. Austria resigns the title of German Emperor. (Empire at an end.)

October 14, 1806. Battle of Jena and Auerstädt.

June 14, 1807. Battle of Friedland.

July 7, 1807. Peace of Tilsit. (Warsaw and part of West Prussia given to August III (Saxony) and raised into a kingdom; East Prussia to the Czar. Secret articles: Moldavia and Wallachia to Russia, Morea and Candia[132] to France, Continental System. Deposition of Bourbons in Spain.)

Va) 1807-1814. (Peace of Paris)

October 1808. Congress of Erfurt. Conquests of Russia in Sweden (Finland) and Turkey (Danubian Principalities).

(At the same time the Russians engaged in backstage dealings[133] with Prussia and Austria against France.)

March 1809. Austrian Manifesto calls the Tyroleans to arms. Archduke John into Italy, Ferdinand marched upon Warsaw, Charles into Bavaria.

12 May 1809. Napoleon enters Vienna. 5, 6 July Wagram. 10 Oct. Peace at Schönbrunn. (Austria cedes Carinthia, part of Tyrol, the territory of Trieste, part of Croatia, Hungarian Adriatic Coast with Fiume. King of Saxony[134] received West Gallicia; Russia another part of Austrian Poland, for her tardy and reluctant manoeuvres during the campaign, as the ally of France.) (Austria had received secret assurances of the neutrality of the Czar.)

September 1809. Peace of Russia with Sweden. (It obtained Finland and the Aaland isles.)

December 1810. Ukase issued by Russia against the principles of the Continental System.

By the end of 1811, the whole of the plots between the northern courts and the court of St. James ripe for execution. Pozzo di Borgo and Prince Luberminski channels between Petersburg and London. Bernadotte already looked upon as a sure card. Prussia and Russia already favoured with arms and ammunition by England. General rising in Italy prepared by Pozzo.

1812, Peace of Bucharest under English mediation[135] ; acquisition by Russia of Bessarabia and part of Moldavia.

1813, February. Prusso-Russian treaty of Kalisch.

1814, April 12. Abdication of Napoleon.

1814, May 30. Peace of Paris. (France limits of 1792. Certain augmentations on the North side.[136] )

Via) May 1814 to November 1815

1 November 1814. Opening of the Congress of Vienna.

9 January 1815. Secret treaty between Austria, France, and England.

1 March 1815. Bonaparte lands in France.

June 18, 1815. Waterloo. (September 26, 1815. Holy Alliance.)

End of June 1815. Congress of Vienna ends. ("Kingdom of Poland" to Russia; part of the Duchy of Warsaw (Posen) to Prussia. Gallicia to Austria. Prussia received half of Saxony, part of Swedish Pomerania, several provinces of Westphalia, and on the left bank of the Rhine. Belgium and Luxemburg to Holland. Austria obtains (in exchange for Belgium) besides its former possessions the whole of Venice, Mantua, etc. (Modena, Tuscany and Parma for other members of the Habsburg family.) Naples restored to Ferdinand[137] Genoa to Piedmont. Denmark must give up Norway to Sweden. Austria gets president of the Frankfort diet.[138] Switzerland: Valois,[139] Neufchatel, Geneva added to it. Several settlements in the Indies, the Cape of Good Hope, Malta, the Ionian islands, Heligoland—spoils from France, Holland, Venice, the Knights of St. John and Denmark to England.)

26 September 1815. Holy Alliance.

20 November 1815. Second Paris Treaty. France obliged to give up several frontier fortresses on the side of the Rhine, Netherlands, Alps..

Vila) 1815-1825

October 1817. Festival of the German students at Wartburg. Burschenschaft.[140] Abolition of the constitution (of 1812) of Sicily. Ditto of Cortes in Spain.[141]

September 1818. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Evacuation of France. The war in Portugal. War between Spain and her American colonies. Periodical meetings proposed by Metternich, to keep down the revolutionary spirit. November 15 protocol signed with relation to those meetings. Castlereagh had signed it. France also taken into the Holy Alliance; [Castlereagh] departs on command of his ministry. (Metternich, Hardenberg, Nesselrode the triumvirate.)

1819. Congress at Carlsbad under Austro-Prussian auspices; afterwards transferred to Vienna. Remodelled the German constitution. Police-Commission at Maynz.[142] Carbonari (formed in 1809 around the throne of Emperor Francis[143] ).[144] Pope[145] thunders against Carbonarism and Freemasons.

January 1820. Ferdinand of Spain[146] forced to restore the constitution of the Cortes, ditto Ferdinand king of Naples (6 July). (General William Pepe, leader of the Carbonari.)

August 1820. Proclamation issued in Lombard-Venetia by Emp. Francis I against Carbonarism.

October 1820. Congress at Troppau. Armed interference against Naples proposed by Metternich. (Dissent of Castlereagh) (who, however, "will leave Austria unembarrassed in her cause"); the congress transferred to

Laybach (1821).

February 1821. Austrian army enters Naples under Baron Fremont.[147] Outbreak in Sardinia, Wallachia, Greece. Austrian armed intervention in Sardinia.

1822. September. Congress of Verona. Protest of Canning. French intervention in Spain.

28 January 1823. Crown speech of Louis XVIII. Announces the intervention in Spain. Alexander I distinctly announced his resolve to aid France if attacked by England. (Metternich began to equivocate.)

Counter-revolution in Portugal. (1822 House of Braganza had granted constitution similar to that of Spain.[148] (King John VI.) (Made counter-revolution with the aid of his son, Don Miquel and the Count Amarazda.[149] ) Canning forbids Spanish Intervention; acknowledges the independence of the American Colonies.)

December 2, 1823. Message to the American Congress of James Monroe, the President.

1825. Mexico acknowledged by Canning.

September 1824. Louis XVIII t. Charles X.

1 October 1825. Alexander I ("The White Angel" of Madame de Krüdener[150] ). Nicolaus.

Villa) 1825-1834

Mohamed II (Reformer). (Mutiny of the Janissaries, discontent of the Ulemas,[151] defection of several Pashas.) ("Hetäria".) (First established in Moscow.[152] ) (Alexander's Ionian minister,[153] Capo d'Istria, chief instrument in the Greek movement.) (Ali Pasha, of Janina, gives in 1821 signal to the general rising of the Greeks.) (Alexander Ypsilanti in Wallachia first rising. Simultaneous risings in the Peloponnesus, the Archipelago, etc. Destruction of the Janissaries.)

February 1825. Ibrahim Pasha (son of Mehemet Ali) lands in Morea.

Quarrel of Turkey with Russia, before Alexander's death.

4 April 1826. Anglo-Russian Protocol (of Petersburg) on Greece.

Treaty of Ackerman October 1826 (between Russia and Turkey). (Stipulations with regard to the Principalities[154] and Servia.)

March 1826. King John VI of Portugal t. (His eldest son Don Pedro gives Portugal to his daughter Maria.) Metternich intrigues with and for the Sultan.[155]

6th July 1827. Treaty (on Greece) signed in London by France, England, and Russia (mediation upon the belligerents).

October 20, 1827. Navarino Disaster. (Canning meanwhile t.)

Spring 1828. Russian army crosses the Pruth. Occupies the Principalities. Pozzo, bosom friend of La Ferronnays, French Minister, privy to every secret communication proceeding from Vienna.

14 September 1829. Treaty of Adrianople; the mouth of the Danube acquired by Russia. Count Capo d'Istria President of Greece.

1830. July. Accession of Louis Philippe. September. Revolution in Belgium.

1831. Rise of the Poles. Risings in Italy. Settlement of the Belgian affairs. Settlement of the Greek affairs.[156]

October 1831. Finis Poloniae.[157]

20 January 1831. Declaration of Belgian independence.

1833, February. Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (10 July).[158]

7 May 1832. Otto of Bavaria King of Greece.

(Russia which extorted, under the cover of the Greek war, the treaty of Ackerman, and then that of Adrianople, was the sole gainer among the European powers.)

1832. On Metternich's initiative reactionary measures in Germany.

IXa) 1834-1846

1828. (Revolt of Don Miquel.) 1832. Don Pedro lands in TeTceira.

Ferdinand of Spain t 1833. July 1, 1833. (Sir Charles Napier destroys the Miquelite squadrons at Cape St. Vincent.)

April 1834. Quadruple Alliance (England, France, Spain, Portugal).[159]

Treaty of July 15, 1840.[160]

6 November 1846. Cracow incorporated into Austria.

XIa) 1846-1850[161]

Pope Pius IX. Swiss Confederation wages war [against the Sonderbund[162] ].

Revolution of February 1848.


November 1846. Pope issues order for the convocation of a "Consulta di Stato".[163]

Pressburg diet of 1847.

9 August 1848. Charles Albert (Sardinia) forced to buy the armistice at Solasco (lasts until mid-March 1849).

25 November 1848. Flight of Pius.

May 1848. Frankfort Assembly.

March 23, 1849. Battle of Novara.

14 April 1849. Independence of Hungary proclaimed.

9 February 1849. Republic proclaimed at Rome.

30 June 1849. Rome falls. 13 August 1849. Hungary surrenders.

August 22, 1849. Venice surrenders.

1848, July. Entry of the Russians into the Principalities.

Duke of Genoa[164] becomes king of Sicily.

1849.[165] February. The Russians in Transylvania.

March 15. The Russians expelled from Transylvania.

March 23. Defeat of the Sardinians at Novara.

April 14. Dethronisation (Hungary) of the Habsburgs.

February 9. Rome Republic.

April 1849. Treaty of Balta Liman. April 22. French embark for Civita Vecchia.

June. Russians enter Hungary.

June 30. Rome surrenders to the French.

August 13. Surrender of the chief Hungarian corps to the Russians.

August 22. Surrender of Venice.

Xlla) 1850-1853

1850, January. Greece blockaded by the English.

May 24. Three Kings' Treaty (Prussia, Saxony, Hanover).[166]

October. Warsaw conferences.

December. Austro-Russian conferences at Dresden.

1851, December 2. Coup d'Etat.

1851, Russians withdraw from the principalities.

1852, December 2. French Empire proclaimed.

December 6. Its recognition announced in the British Parliament.

1852, May. Danish succession treaty.

Xllla) 1853-56[167]


  1. ↑ The Union of Calmar (1397-1523) included Denmark, Norway (with Iceland) and Sweden (with Finland) under the sovereignty of the Danish kings. Sweden virtually broke away in 1449. The attempt of the Danish King Christian II to bring it back into the union by staging a bloodbath in Stockholm led to a final rupture and the restoration of Swedish statehood (1523).
  2. ↑ Aachen.— Ed.
  3. ↑ Bicocca.— Ed.
  4. ↑ This refers to the League of Cognac formed on May 22, 1526.
  5. ↑ Francesco II.— Ed.
  6. ↑ Traité des dames—an ironic designation of the Peace of Cambray (August 1529), which was concluded with the active co-operation of Louise of Savoy (Francis I's mother) and Margaret (Charles V's aunt).
  7. ↑ This refers to the rejection by Charles V and the Augsburg Imperial Diet in 1530 of the Confession of Augsburg, which laid down the principles of Lutheranism and established the ritual aspect.
  8. ↑ The League of Schmalkalden (February 27, 1531), named after the town in Thuringia where it was formed, was a union of Protestant princes and a number of Imperial towns for the protection of the Reformation against the Catholic princes headed by Emperor Charles V, From 1546 to 1548 the League and the Emperor were engaged in a war which ended in the latter's victory and the disintegration of the League.
  9. ↑ Janos Zâpolya.— Ed.
  10. ↑ Henry IL— Ed.
  11. ↑ In 1534 Henry VIII broke off relations with the Pope and was proclaimed Head of the Anglican Church by Parliament (Act of Supremacy).
  12. ↑ Hadher Barbarossa.— Ed.
  13. ↑ The Augsburg Interim was a treaty between the German Catholics and Protestants adopted by the Imperial Diet in Augsburg after the Protestants' defeat in the Schmalkalden War. A compromise that satisfied neither party, it was superseded by the Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555).
  14. ↑ Cateau-Cambrésis.— Ed.
  15. ↑ The Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) put an end to the Italian Wars (1494-1559). It consisted of two treaties: one between France and England and another between France and Spain. France renounced all claims to possessions in Italy. The Savoy Duchy, captured by Francis I in 1536, was restored and given part of Piedmont.
  16. ↑ Marx is obviously referring to an international treaty proposed in Mémoires des sages et royales économies d'Estat, domestiques, politiques et militaires de Henry le Grand, a book by Sully, Counsellor to Henry IV, published in 1638. Drawn up by Sully (even though he attributes it to Henry IV) at the height of the Thirty Years' War, it was anti-Habsburg in character and advocated the expulsion of the Turks and Tatars from Europe and the establishment of a conglomerate of Christian states under the nominal supremacy of the Pope, but actually led by France. The plan was patently unrealistic.
  17. ↑ Region in the middle reaches of the Elbe, Spree and Neisse rivers, inhabited by the West Slavonic tribe of Lusatians.— Ed
  18. ↑ Priozersk.— Ed
  19. ↑ The Izhora land subject to Novgorod.— Ed.
  20. ↑ F r o m 1604 to 1606 Hungary, Hungarian-ruled Slovakia and Transylvania were the scene of an anti-Habsburg liberation movement led by the Hungarian feudal lord Istvan Bocskai. The anti-feudal demands of the peasants taking part in the movement made its leaders accept a compromise with the Habsburgs. The treaty signed by Bocskai and Rudolph II in Vienna in 1606 restored Transylvania's independence, granted religious freedom to the Protestants and replaced a number of the Emperor's counsellors by members of the Hungarian nobility.
  21. ↑ Gabor Bethlen.— Ed.
  22. ↑ Paul V.—Ed.
  23. ↑ The Thirty Years' War (see Note 162) was sparked off by an anti-Habsburg uprising in Bohemia which lasted from 1618 to 1620. The Bohemians were supported by Gabor Bethlen, leader of a similar uprising in Hungary. The insurgents suffered a decisive defeat at Bîlâ Hora on November 8, 1620.
  24. ↑ Henrietta Maria.— Ed,
  25. ↑ The anti-Habsburg movement in Hungary led by Gâbor Bethlen (1619-26) was one aspect of the Thirty Years' War and ended in the signing of the Pozsony (Bratislava) Peace on December 20, 1626.
  26. ↑ The Edict of Restitution (1629) provided for the restoration of secularised church land to the German Catholic princes. It was the result of the successes achieved by the Habsburg-Catholic camp in the early stage of the Thirty Years' War. The Edict was officially revoked by the Peace Treaty of Westphalia (October 24, 1648).
  27. ↑ The Truce of Altmark was concluded by Poland and Sweden with French mediation for six years on September 26, 1629. It enabled Sweden to open hostilities against the Habsburgs.
  28. ↑ Vincenzo II Gonzaga.— Ed.
  29. ↑ This refers to th e wa r of th e Mantua n Succession (1628-31), which formed th e third stage of the Thirt y Years' War.
  30. ↑ Johann Georg I.— Ed
  31. ↑ Th e Peace of Prague was concluded by the Germa n Protestant princes with the Empero r on May 30, 1635
  32. ↑ Victor Amadeus I.—Ed
  33. ↑ György I Râkôczy.— Ed.
  34. ↑ Anne of Austria, consort of Louis XIII of France, was the daughter of Philip III of Spain and tried to pursue a pro-Spanish policy at the time of her regency (1643-61), during the minority of her son Louis XIV. France's virtual ruler at that time was Mazarin.
  35. ↑ Osnaburg.— Ed.
  36. ↑ The Peace of Westphalia, signed in Münster on October 24, 1648, consisted of two interlinked peace treaties: the Osnabrück Treaty (between the Holy Roman Emperor and his allies, on the one hand, and Sweden and its allies, on the other) and the Münster Treaty (between the Emperor and France with its allies). Peace negotiations had been under way from 1645. The Peace of Westphalia virtually sealed Germany's political fragmentation (see also Note 162).
  37. ↑ Guillaume Hyacinthe Bougeant, Histoire du traité de Westphalie, ou des négociations qui se firent à Münster et à Osr.abriig, pour établir la paix entre toutes les puissances de l'Europe, Paris, 1751.— Ed.
  38. ↑ This refers to Spain's separat e treaty with Holland (one of the series of Westphalian treaties).
  39. ↑ Brcisach.— Ed.
  40. ↑ Pincrolo.— Ed.
  41. ↑ Bohemia formed part of the Habsburg Empire (1526-1918). Speaking of the amnesty Marx means the promises Britain, France, Sweden, Denmark and other states made to Bohemia during the Thirty Years' War when it fought on the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition. Under the Peace of Westphalia, the Bohemian lands, the scene of military operations throughout the Thirty Years' War, remained under Habsburg rule.
  42. ↑ This refers to the Westminster Peace Treaty of April 14, 1654, which concluded the first Anglo-Dutch war (1652-54). It was waged for mastery of the seas and ended in defeat for Holland. The latter was forced to reconcile itself to the English Navigation Act of 1651, which was directed against the Dutch carrying trade.
  43. ↑ After the Peace of Westphalia (1648) France continued its war against Spain. It was concluded by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed on Fezan Island on Bidasoa River on November 7, 1659. As a result, hegemony in Western Europe passed from Spain to France.
  44. ↑ Catherine.— Ed.
  45. ↑ Frederick William.— Ed
  46. ↑ This refers to the terms of the Peace of Roeskilde concluded on February 26, 1658, which ende d the Danish-Swedish Wa r of 1657-58. Sound duties—the mone y toll exacted from 1425 onward s by Denmar k from foreign ships passing throug h the Sound .
  47. ↑ Th e Peace of Oliva, signed on May 3, 1660, by Sweden, on the on e hand , an d Poland, Empero r Leopold I an d Elector Frederick-William of Brandenburg , on the other, was on e of the series of treaties that ende d the Norther n Wa r (1655-60).
  48. ↑ Margarita Theresa.— Ed
  49. ↑ The jus devolutionis was a legal principle in some of the Netherland provinces under which, in the event of a second marriage of the father, his land passed to his children by the first marriage. It served as a basis for Louis XIV, married to Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain by his first marriage, to launch a war for the Spanish Netherlands (the War of Devolution, 1667-68) against Charles II, King of Spain, son of Philip IV of second marriage. Philip IV died in 1668.
  50. ↑ Leopold I.— Ed.
  51. ↑ Nijmegen.— Ed.
  52. ↑ This refers to the Peace of Nijmegen, concluded by France and Sweden with Emperor Leopold I on February 5, 1679. It confirmed the terms of the Peace of Westphalia and was one of the Nijmegen treaties of 1678-79 which ended the war of 1672-78 waged by a coalition of states headed by France against a coalition under the Netherlands.
  53. ↑ The Chambres de réunion were set up by Louis XIV at the municipal council of Breisach and the Parliaments of Metz and Besançon in 1679-80 to provide legal justification for France's claims to territories in Alsace, Western Lorraine and some other areas.
  54. ↑ Regensburg.— Ed.
  55. ↑ Marx took this from the chronological table at the end of Szabo's book, p. 384.— Ed.
  56. ↑ The Peace of Ryswik (or Rijswijk) concluded the 1688-97 war between France and the Augsburg League (the Netherlands, England, Spain, the German Empire, Savoy, Sweden, and a number of German and Italian principalities). It confirmed, with certain alterations, the pre-war frontiers of the states involved. France was forced to recognise William of Orange as King of Great Britain and Ireland and thus reconcile itself to the coup d'état of 1688-89.
  57. ↑ Louis.— Ed.
  58. ↑ Joseph Ferdinand.— Ed.
  59. ↑ Philip of Anjou (Philip V).— Ed
  60. ↑ Ferdinando Carlo, Gonzaga di.— Ed.
  61. ↑ Szabo has "formal renunciation on the part of Philip V of the throne of France" (Vol. I, p. 167).— Ed.
  62. ↑ The Grand Alliance—the anti-French coalition formed on September 7, 1701 in The Hague by Emperor Leopold I, Britain and the Netherlands on the eve of the War of the Spanish Succession. Prussia, Denmark, Portugal and several other states joined the alliance later. By calling it the second Grand Alliance, Szabö treats the anti-French coalition of 1688 as the first.
  63. ↑ James Stuart.— Ed.
  64. ↑ What is meant here is the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession, in which the first action was the dispatch in 1701 of Imperial troops under Eugene of Savoy to Italy to prevent the capture of the Duchy of Milan by the French. War was officially declared on Louis XIV in 1702.
  65. ↑ Leopold I.— Ed.
  66. ↑ This refers to the, anti-Habsburg liberation movement in Hungary (1703-11) led by Ferenc II Rikoczy. An active part in it, particularly in the early period, was played by the peasants, who put forward anti-feudal demands. The movement ended in the signing of the Treaty of Szatmar (1711) (see Note 127) and the surrender of the insurgent army. Hungary was incorporated into the Habsburg Empire. Râkôczy regarded the Szatmar treaty as a betrayal and refused to recognise it.
  67. ↑ Poltava.— Ed.
  68. ↑ A slip of the pen. It should read "his brother".— Ed.
  69. ↑ Charles VI.— Ed.
  70. ↑ Marx put this paragraph after the words "1719. Aaland conferences opened on April 24". The editors have transferred it to maintain the chronological order.— Ed.
  71. ↑ The Aaland Congress (1718-19) — preliminary peace talks between representatives of Russia and Sweden during the Great Northern War (1700-21). The parties failed to reach agreement.
  72. ↑ The Great Northern War (1700-21) was concluded by a series of peace treaties: the Treaty of Stockholm (November 9, 1719) between Sweden and Britain (Hanover); the Treaty of Stockholm {January 21, 1720) between Sweden and Prussia; the treaty between Sweden and Denmark (July 3, 1720) and the Treaty of Nystadt (September 10/August 30, 1721) between Russia and Sweden. Marx gives the wrong date, November 1, when referring to the Treaty of Stockholm between Sweden and Britain.
  73. ↑ Charles I.— Ed
  74. ↑ Quadruple Alliance (1718)—the alliance formed by France and Britain and later joined by Austria (the Netherlands was expected to join too) to uphold the terms of the Peace of Utrecht in the face of Spain's attempts to recover its possessions in Italy turned over to Austria under the Utrecht peace agreements. The conflict took the form of a war by France and Britain against Spain which ended in Spain's defeat and accession (1720) to the Quadruple Alliance.
  75. ↑ Charles VI.— Ed.
  76. ↑ Piacenza.— Ed.
  77. ↑ Cosimo III.— Ed.
  78. ↑ This refers to the Hanoverian Alliance formed by France, Britain and Prussia on September 3, 1725 and joined by the Netherlands in 1726 and Denmark and Sweden in 1727. It was directed against Spain and Austria.
  79. ↑ Augustus III.— Ed.
  80. ↑ The Pragmatic Sanction was a law on succession to the throne issued by Charles VI of Habsburg in 1713. It decreed the indivisibility of the Habsburgs' hereditary lands and envisaged the possibility of the Crown of the Austrian Empire passing to Maria Theresa, Charles VI's daughter.
  81. ↑ Francis Stephen (Francis I).— Ed.
  82. ↑ The Black Sea.— Ed.
  83. ↑ Szabo has "in the Indies". This refers to the West Indies.— Ed
  84. ↑ Marx took this sentence from the chronological table at the end of Szabö'sbook, p. 386.— Ed.
  85. ↑ Charles VII (Charles Albert).— Ed.
  86. ↑ Elizabeth (Petrovna).— Ed.
  87. ↑ Marx put this after the words " 1745 (December). Peace of Dresden between Frederick and Austria". The editors have transferred it in accordance with Marx's marginal notes.— Ed.
  88. ↑ Maximilian III Josef.— Ed
  89. ↑ Maurice von Saxe.— Ed.
  90. ↑ Guastalla.- -F.d.
  91. ↑ This refers to the treaties (including the Peace of Utrecht and the Peace of Rastatt) concluded between 1713 and 1715 by France and Spain with the members of the anti-French coalition (Britain, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Savoy and the Austrian Habsburgs) to end the long War of the Spanish Succession. Their major provision was the retention of the Spanish throne by Philip Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV, but the King of France was forced to renounce his plans for merging the French and Spanish monarchies. A number of French and Spanish colonies in the West Indies and North America, and also Gibraltar and the port of Mahon on Minorca Island were turned over to Britain. It also secured the asiento, a monopoly right to import African slaves into the Spanish dominions in America.
  92. ↑ Kolin.----F.d.
  93. ↑ A mistake in Szabö's book: the Hanovero-Hessian troops were beaten by a French army under Marshal L. Ch. d'Estrées. Marshal L. F. Richelieu assumed command of this army in 1758.
  94. ↑ This refers to the Battle of Leiten (Lutynia) in Silesia on December 5, 1757 at which Frederick II defeated the Austrians and secured the capture of Silesia by Prussia.
  95. ↑ Maria Theresa.— Ed
  96. ↑ An allusion to the fact that one of the main causes of the Seven Years' War (see Note 122) was Anglo-French rivalry over colonies.
  97. ↑ Dominica.— Ed.
  98. ↑ The Hubertusburg Peace, signed by Austria and Saxony with Prussia on February 15, 1763, was made possible by Peter III, who not only stopped all hostilities against Prussia but pledged himself to Frederick II to use whatever influence Russia could exert on Austria to end the Seven Years' War (1756-63). Under the Hubertusburg Peace, Prussia recovered oil the territories it had lost during the war.
  99. ↑ See this volume, p. 517.— Ed.
  100. ↑ This refers to the benefits Sweden gained under the Peace of Westphalia, which gave it control of the main harbours on the Baltic and the North Sea (see also Note 162).
  101. ↑ An allusion to the liberum veto, the right of every member of the Diet to veto its decisions; introduced in 1652, it aggravated feudal anarchy in Poland,
  102. ↑ Nikolai VasilyCvich Repnin.— Ed
  103. ↑ Mustafa III.— Ed.
  104. ↑ Alexei Mikhailövich Obreskov.— Ed
  105. ↑ Marx took this from the chronological table at the end of Szabo's book, p. 386.— Ed.
  106. ↑ Marx put this after the words "1772. Partition of Poland". The editors have transferred it in accordance with the way the material is presented in Szabô's book.— Ed.
  107. ↑ Szabo has "The war of the British-American colonies..." (The State Policy..., Vol. I, p. 296).— Ed.
  108. ↑ Stamp duty—the duty imposed in North America on commercial and judicial documents and periodicals. It was introduced by the Stamp Act, endorsed by the British Parliament on March 22, 1765.
  109. ↑ Marx took this item from the chronological table at the end of Szabo's book, p. 386.— Ed.
  110. ↑ Potato War—ironic name given to the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-79), waged by Prussia and Saxony against Austria.
  111. ↑ Item taken by Marx from Szabö's chronological table (ibid., p. 387).— Ed.
  112. ↑ The Armed Neutrality, a policy directed against Britain, was based on five principles of international law put forward in 1778 in connection with problems of navigation in the Sound. The Armed Neutrality was also acceded to by Denmark, Sweden and Prussia.
  113. ↑ In June and July 1790 representatives of Austria, Prussia, Poland, Britain and the Netherlands conferred in the Silesian town of Reichenbach. Worried by Russia's successes in the Russo-Turkish War (1787-91), they obliged Austria to make peace with Turkey (see Note 408).
  114. ↑ The Peace of Värälä, signed on August 14, 1790, ended the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-90. Russia recognised the new Swedish Constitution, which curtailed the rights of the Riksdag, strengthened the King's authority and confirmed the privileges of the nobility. The peace treaty recognised Russia's right to the territories it has obtained under the Nystadt and Abo treaties (see this volume, pp. 515, 517).
  115. ↑ On August 4, 1791 Austria and Turkey signed a peace treaty at Sistova, Bulgaria, terminating the Austro-Turkish War of 1788-90 on the basis of the status quo ante bellum. Austria obtained Stara Orsova, but without the right to erect fortifications there.
  116. ↑ The Treaty of JaSsy, signed on December 29, 1791 (January 9, 1792), ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-91. It confirmed the annexation of the Crimea to Russia and laid down the Russo-Turkish frontier along the Dniester,
  117. ↑ In his synopsis of Volume II of Szabö's book, Marx adds the letter "a" to the numbers of chapters: la, Ha, etc.
  118. ↑ Frederick William II.— Ed.
  119. ↑ Novogrudok.— Ed.
  120. ↑ This paragraph is not based on Szabo's book, but on some other source.— Ed
  121. ↑ Podlachia.— Ed.
  122. ↑ Under the separate Treaty of Basle (July 22, 1795) concluded by France and Spain, the former obtained the Spanish (eastern) part of Haiti. The western part of the island, called Santo Domingo from 1697 to 1803, was owned by France under the Ryswick peace treaty of 1697 (see Note 387). In the nineteenth century the whole of Haiti was sometimes referred to as Santo Domingo.
  123. ↑ This refers to the treaty between France and the Batavian Republic, which was formed on the territory of the Dutch Kingdom following the entry of French republican troops into the country and a rising of the local population (January-March 1795) against the reactionary regime of Stadtholder William V. Signed in May 1795, the treaty provided for the transfer of part of the republic's territory to France. In 1806 Napoleon I transformed the Batavian Republic into the Kingdom of Holland.
  124. ↑ See Note 164.
  125. ↑ Marx took this from the chronological table at the end of Szabö's book.— Ed
  126. ↑ This refers to the negotiations to settle the territorial disputes involving the Holy Roman Empire held by representatives of France, Austria, Prussia and a number of other German states in Rastatt from December 9, 1797. In March 1798 the Imperial delegation approved the transfer of the left bank of the Rhine to France (this seems to be the event Marx had in mind in recording the date in question), and on April 23, 1799 the congress closed because of the outbreak of hostilities between the second coalition and France.
  127. ↑ Friedrich Karl Joseph, Baron of Erthal.— Ed.
  128. ↑ Frederick I.— Ed.
  129. ↑ The Parthenopaean Republic was proclaimed on the territory of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies on January 22, 1799 by Neapolitan republicans backed by the troops of the French Directory. It only survived until June 23, 1799 when the power of the Bourbons (Ferdinand IV) was restored with British help.
  130. ↑ Pius VII.— Ed.
  131. ↑ Marx has "Russia", probably a slip of the pen.— Ed.
  132. ↑ Crete.— Ed
  133. ↑ The original is illegible here.— Ed.
  134. ↑ Frederick Augustus I.— Ed.
  135. ↑ Marx took this sentence from the chronological table at the end of Szabô's book, p. 388.— Ed.
  136. ↑ Presumably this refers to Holland (see Szabo, The State Policy..., Vol. I, p. 92).— Ed.
  137. ↑ Ferdinand I.— Ed.
  138. ↑ This refers to the Federal Diet, an assembly of representatives of the German states which formed the German Confederation (see Note 76) at the Congress of Vienna on June 8, 1815.
  139. ↑ Valais.— Ed.
  140. ↑ The Wartburg Festival was held on the initiative of Jena University students on October 18, 1817 to commemorate the tercentenary of the Reformation and the fourth anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig. The Festival was a demonstration of the students' opposition to the Metternich regime. The Burschenschaften were German student organisations formed during the liberation struggle against Napoleon. They advocated the unification of Germany and combined progressive ideas with extreme nationalism. Szabö mistakenly associates the rise of these organisations with the Wartburg Festival.
  141. ↑ Marx refers to the Constitution adopted by the Cortes in Cadiz on March 18, 1812, in the course of the Spanish revolution of 1808-14. It envisaged a series of bourgeois-democratic reforms and was repealed by Ferdinand VII on May 4, 1814. Reintroduced by Riego during the Spanish revolution of 1820-23, it was again repealed on October 1, 1823 by Ferdinand VII, who had earlier sworn allegiance to it. It was again introduced on August 12, 1836 and remained in force until June 18, 1837.
  142. ↑ This refers to the Central Commission of Investigation set up at Mainz on August 31, 1819 at a conference of ministers of Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and other member states of the German Confederation to combat the liberal and revolutionary opposition in Germany.
  143. ↑ Francis I.— Ed
  144. ↑ At an early stage of their activity in the nineteenth century the Carbonari headed the anti-French movement in the Kingdom of Naples (against Murat) and helped Ferdinand I and his son Francis I recover the crown of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The source used by Marx mistakenly calls Francis an emperor.
  145. ↑ Pius VIL— Ed.
  146. ↑ Ferdinand VII.— Ed.
  147. ↑ Johann Maria Philipp Frimont.— Ed.
  148. ↑ I.e., the Constitution of Cadiz (see Note 418)
  149. ↑ Dom Miguel and Count of Amarante.— Ed.
  150. ↑ See this volume, p. 138.— Ed.
  151. ↑ The Ulema were Moslem doctors of divine law and theology who controlled the judiciary and the religious institutions and schools in Moslem countries. They enjoyed high prestige in the political life of the Ottoman Empire.
  152. ↑ Hetairia—see Note 139.
  153. ↑ An allusion to the fact that before entering the Russian diplomatic service in 1809 G. Capo d'lstria held a number of posts in the Republic of the Seven United Islands set up on the Ionian Islands under the Russo-Turkish convention of 1800.
  154. ↑ Moldavia and Wallachia.— Ed.
  155. ↑ Mahmood IL— Ed.
  156. ↑ Marx took this item from the chronological table at the end of Szabo's book, p. 389.— Ed.
  157. ↑ See this volume, p. 148.— Ed.
  158. ↑ See Note 301.
  159. ↑ This refers to the Convention on the Iberian Peninsula signed by the four powers in London on April 22, 1834 (see Note 265).
  160. ↑ See Note 128.
  161. ↑ Marx omitted Chapter X ("Theories of International Law") of Szabö's book.— Ed.
  162. ↑ See Note 168.
  163. ↑ At the beginning of his pontificate (1846), Pope Pius IX announced a programme of moderate liberal-bourgeois reforms (establishment of a commission on the administrative reorganisation of the Papal States, limited political amnesty and other measures).
  164. ↑ Ferdinando Maria Alberto.— Ed.
  165. ↑ From here on Marx"s notes follow not the text of Volume II of Szabo's book but the chronological table appended to it (State Policy..., Vol. II, pp. 389-91).
  166. ↑ Frederick William IV, Frederick Augustus II and Ernest Augustus.— Ed.
  167. ↑ Here the manuscript breaks off.— Ed.